By 1915, the Western front was locked in stalemate after Germany’s aim to quickly defeat France in the west and then attack Russia in the east—outlined in the Schlieffen Plan—was unsuccessful. Numerous confrontations involving the Germans and the Allies took place along the 320km front; however neither side made significant gains. On the east, Russia faced numerous failures by the Germans, such as the losses at Tannenburg and the Masurian Lakes. In October 1914, Turkey joined the war on the side of the Alliance with the intention of halting Russian expansion around the Black Sea.
Gallipoli campaign (Naval attack: March 1915; Campaign: April 1915 – January 1916)
A. Tactics
1. Winston Churchill, First Lord of the Admiralty, was prompted to plan the Gallipoli campaign because of the stalemate in the Western front.
a. Churchill meant to overwhelm Germany by attacking on a new front and thereby resolve the Western stalemate by bringing an early end to the war.
2. The Central Powers were fighting on two fronts –Eastern and Western
a. By starting an attack from Egypt, Germany would have to split is army up further. This would weaken its overall offensive strength.
3. The British sent one division from the Western Front and 30 000 Australians and New Zealanders.
a. The Allies sent limited professional soldiers and many poorly trained colonial troops because they underestimated the ability of the Turkish army.
4. Churchill initially planned to take Constantinople by a purely naval attack.
a. He did not think a land offensive was needed because he thought the Turks could be easily overwhelmed. This contributed to the failure of the naval attack.
5. The Turkish troops were not considered serious enemies by British leadership.
6. The Turkish were greatly outnumbered
7. The Turkish held steep cliffs above the beaches
a. This gave them the tactical advantage of height which was key in the counter-attack of the Allied landing parties.
8. Turkish troops had strong leadership (Mustapha Kemal)
a. Inspired his troops to fight heroically even after they ran out of ammunition and only had bayonets. Every Turk in the 57th regiment died fighting to the end.
B. Events
1. Sixteen British and French battleships advanced into the Dardanelles on March 18.
2. The Turkish sunk three ships and took a further three ships out of action with mines. The Allied fleet retreated shortly after.
a. Exemplified Churchill’s lack of foresight in the Turk’s capabilities.
3. Six weeks later on April 25, landing parties hit shore.
a. Delay in landing allowed Turkish troops to prepare for British attacks by preparing trenches, gun emplacements, etc. The Allied offense was poorly planned.
4. The Allied troops landed in open boats.
a. This gave Turkish troops a clear field of fire from their vantage points on the cliffs, resulting in appalling casualties.
5. 4 000 Anzacs (out of 30 000) were lost on the first day
a. The Turkish held higher ground on cliffs, giving them an advantage. The Allies did not plan around this.
6. The Allied troops faced a shortage of water in the middle of the extremely hot Turkish summer.
a. Many died due to dysentery as a result. The army was not prepared.
7. The Allied troops faced a very cold winter.
a. Many men froze to death or drowned in floods because they were ill-prepared and lacked resources.
C. Trenches
1. Trench warfare continued despite the fear of dysentery and extreme heat.
a. The already poor conditions of trench life were made worse with the harsh external conditions at Gallipoli and the lack of resources to address them by the Allied troops.
2. The need to dig in during the campaign caused the stalemate of 10 months with little progress for both sides.
a. Exemplified the stagnant nature of trench warfare, leading to 200 000 on both sides.
3. The first blizzard in the winter drowned 280 Allied men in the trenches.
4. Men in the trenches suffered from heat strokes and malaria.
5. The Turkish and Allied troops would throw gifts, like cigarettes, to each others’ trenches.
a. The soldier’s poor conditions in the trenches brought men together, despite being on opposing sides. The conditions of the trenches established camaraderie between soldiers and resentment towards leadership (like with poverty).
D. Outcomes
1. The British War Council finally agreed to withdraw troops in December (1915).
2. Over 200 000 Allied deaths, including those caused by disease. Over 200 000 Turkish deaths as well.
a. Despite the superiority of resources available to the Allies and the expectation for an ill-prepared Turkish army, casualties still occurred equally on both sides.
3. Approximately 55 000 Turkish troops were lost.
4. The Turkish were victorious.
E. Lessons Learned
1. Significant shortcomings in British leadership.
a. Churchill was removed from his position as the Admiralty because he insisted on the renewal of the naval plan
2. Allied loss due to poor commitment to planning, lack of men and resources.
3. The Allies grossly underestimated the enemy.
4. Inexperience of modern war
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